Fugitive Pieces :: Essays Papers

Fugitive Pieces Report on "Fugitive Pieces" Searing the mind with stunning images while seducing with radiant prose, this brilliant first novel is a story of damaged lives and the indestructibility of the human spirit. It speaks about loss, about the urgency, pain and ultimate healing power of memory, andabout the redemptive power of love. Its characters come to understand the implacability of the natural world, the impartial perfection ofscience, the heartbreak of history. The narrative is permeated with insights about language itself, its power to distort and destroy meaning, and to restore it again to those with stalwart hearts. During WWII, when Jakob Beer is seven, his parents are murdered by Nazi soldiers who invade their Polish village, and his beloved, musically talented 15-year-old sister, Bella, is abducted. Fleeing from the blood-drenched scene, he is magically saved by Greek geologist Athos Roussos, who secretly transports the traumatized boy to his home on the island of Zakynthos, where they live through the Nazi occupation, suffering privations but escaping the atrocities that decimate Greece's Jewish community. Jakob is haunted by the moment of his parents' death the burst door, buttons spilling out of a saucer onto the floor, darkness and his spirit remains sorrowfully linked with that of his lost sister, whose fate anguishes him. But he travels in his imagination to the places that Athos describes and the books that this kindly scholar provides. At war's end, Athos accepts a university post in Toronto, and Jakob begins a new life. Yet he remains disoriented and unmoored, trapped by memory and grief, "a damaged chromosome" the more so after Athos' premature death. By then, however, Jakob has discovered his m‚tier as poet and essayist and strives to find in language the meaning of his life. The miraculous gift of a soul mate in his second wife, "voluptuous scholar" Michaela, comes late for Jakob. Their marriage is brief, and ends in stunning irony. The second part of the novel concerns a younger man, Ben, who is profoundly influenced by Jakob's poetry and goes to the Greek island of Idhra in an attempt to find the writer's notebooks after his death. Ben is another damaged soul. The son of Holocaust survivors, he carries their sorrow like a heavy stone. Emotionally maimed and fearful, Ben feels that he was "born into absence.

Fool Chapter 11

ELEVEN A SWEET AND BITTER FOOL Goneril dumped me on the floor as if she'd suddenly found a bag of drowned kittens in her lap. She snapped open the letter and began reading without even bothering to tuck her bosoms back into her gown. â€Å"Milady,† said Oswald again. He'd learned from that first whipping. He acted as if he didn't even see me. â€Å"Your father is in the great hall, asking after his fool.† Goneril looked up, irritated. â€Å"Well, then, take him. Take him, take him, take him.† She waved us away like flies. â€Å"Very well, milady.† Oswald turned on his heel and marched away. â€Å"Come, fool.† I stood and rubbed my bum as I followed Oswald out of the solar. Yes, my backside was bruised, but there was pain in my heart as well. What a bitter bitch to cast me out while my bum still burned with the blows of her passion. The bells on my coxcomb drooped in despair. Kent fell in beside me in the hall. â€Å"So, is she smitten with you?† â€Å"With Edmund of Gloucester,† said I. â€Å"Edmund? She's smitten with the bastard?† â€Å"Aye, the fickle whore,† said I. Kent looked startled and folded back the brim of his hat to better see me. â€Å"But you bewitched her to do so, didn't you?† â€Å"Oh, yes, I suppose I did,† said I. So, she was only immune to my charms by means of dark and powerful magic. Ha! I felt better. â€Å"She reads the letter I forged in his hand even now.† â€Å"Your fool,† Oswald announced as we entered the hall. The old king was there, with Captain Curan and a dozen other knights who looked like they'd just returned from the hunt – for me, no doubt. â€Å"My boy!† Lear called, throwing his arms wide. I walked into his embrace, but did not return it. I found no tenderness in my heart at the sight of him, but my anger boiled still. â€Å"Oh joy,† said Oswald, his disdain dripping like venom in his voice. â€Å"The prodigal git returns.† â€Å"See here,† said Lear. â€Å"My men have yet to be paid. Tell my daughter I will see her.† Oswald did not acknowledge the old man, but kept walking. â€Å"You, sir!† roared the king. â€Å"Did you hear me?† Oswald turned slowly, as if he'd heard his name carried in faintly on the wind. â€Å"Aye, I heard you.† â€Å"Do you know who I am?† Oswald picked a front tooth with the nail of his small finger. â€Å"Aye, my lady's father.† He smirked. The rascal had cheek, that I will give him, that or a burning desire to be catapulted cod over cap into the afterlife. â€Å"Your lady's father!† Lear pulled off his heavy leather hunting gauntlet and backhanded it across Oswald's face. â€Å"You knave! You whoreson dog! You slave! You cur!† The metal studs on Lear's glove were beginning to draw blood where they struck Oswald. â€Å"I am none of these things. I will not be struck by you.† Oswald was backing toward the great double doors as Lear worried at him with the glove, but when the steward turned to run Kent threw out a leg and swept him off his feet. â€Å"Or tripped, neither, you tosser!† said Kent. Oswald rolled into a heap at the foot of one of Goneril's guards, then scrambled to his feet and ran out. The guards pretended they'd seen nothing. â€Å"Well done, friend,† said Lear to Kent. â€Å"Are you the one who brought my fool home?† â€Å"Aye, he is, nuncle,† said I. â€Å"Rescued me from the darkest heart of the forest, fought off brigands, pygmies, and a brace of tigers to bring me here. But don't let him talk his Welsh at you, one tiger was vanquished in a sluice of phlegm and mortally beaten with consonants.† Lear looked closely now at his old friend, then shivered – guilt's chill claws scuttling across his spine, no doubt. â€Å"Welcome, then, sir. I thank thee.† Lear handed Kent a small purse of coin. â€Å"Earnest payment for your service.† â€Å"My thanks and my sword,† said Kent, bowing. â€Å"What is your name?† asked Lear. â€Å"Caius,† said Kent. â€Å"And whence do you hail?† â€Å"From Bonking, sire.† â€Å"Well, yes, lad, as do we all,† said Lear, â€Å"but from what town?† â€Å"Bonking Ewe on Worms Head,† I offered with a shrug. â€Å"Wales – â€Å" â€Å"Fine, then, join my train,† said Lear. â€Å"You're hired.† â€Å"Oh, and allow me to hire you as well,† said I, removing my hat and handing it to Kent with a jingle. â€Å"What's this?† asked Kent. â€Å"Who but a fool would work for a fool?† â€Å"Watch your tongue, boy,† said Lear. â€Å"You'll have to get your own hat, fool,† said I to the king. â€Å"Mine is already promised.† Captain Curan turned to conceal a smile. â€Å"You call me a fool?† â€Å"Oh, should I not call you fool? All your other titles you have given away, along with your land.† â€Å"I'll have you whipped.† I rubbed my burning bottom. â€Å"That is the only legacy you have left, nuncle.† â€Å"You've become a bitter fool in your absence,† said the king. â€Å"And you the sweet one,† said I. â€Å"The fool who makes a jest of his own fate.† â€Å"The boy is not altogether fool,† said Kent. Lear turned on the old knight, but not in anger. â€Å"Perhaps,† said he, weakly, his eye drifting to the stones of the floor as if searching for an answer there. â€Å"Perhaps.† â€Å"The lady, Goneril, Duchess of Albany!† announced one of the guards. â€Å"Craven hose-beast!† I added, relatively certain the guard would forget that part. Goneril breezed into the room, no notice of me, she went right to her father. The old man opened his arms but she stopped short, a sword-length away. â€Å"Did you strike my man for chiding your fool?† Now she scowled at me. I rubbed my bum and blew her a kiss. Oswald peeked through the doors to the hall, as if waiting for the answer. â€Å"I struck the knave for being impudent. I but asked him to fetch you. My fool has only just returned from being lost. This is not a time for frowns, daughter.† â€Å"There're no smiles for you, sire,† said I. â€Å"Not now that you've nothing to offer. The lady has only bile for fools and those with no title at all.† â€Å"Quiet, boy,† said the king. â€Å"You see,† said Goneril. â€Å"Not just your all-licensed fool, but your whole train treats my palace like a tavern and a brothel. They fight and eat all day, drink and carouse all night, and you care for nothing but your precious fool.† â€Å"As it should be,† said Jones, albeit softly – when royal ire is raging, even the spittle sprayed from their lips can rain down death on the common puppet or person. â€Å"I care for much, and my men are the best in the land. And they have not been paid since we left London. Perhaps if you – â€Å" â€Å"They will not be paid!† said Goneril, and suddenly all the knights in the hall came to attention. â€Å"When I gave you all, 'twas on the condition of you maintaining my retinue, daughter.† â€Å"Aye, Father, and they shall be maintained, but not in your charge, and not in their full number.† Lear was growing red-faced now, and shaking with anger as with palsy. â€Å"Speak clearly, daughter, these old ears deceive.† Now Goneril went to her father and took his hand. â€Å"Yes, Father, you are old. Very old. Really, really, extraordinarily, mind-bogglingly – † She turned to me for a cue. â€Å"Dog-fuckingly,† I suggested. † – dog-fuckingly old,† said the duchess. â€Å"You are feebly, incontinently, desiccatedly, smelling-of-boiled-cabaggely old. You are brain-rottingly, balls-draggingly – â€Å" â€Å"I'm fucking old!† said Lear. â€Å"We'll stipulate that,† said I. â€Å"And,† continued Goneril, â€Å"while you, in your dotage, should be revered for your wisdom and grace, you piss on your legacy and reputation by keeping this train of ruffians. They are too much for you.† â€Å"They are my loyal men and you have agreed to maintain them.† â€Å"And I shall. I shall pay your men, but half will stay here at Albany, under my charge, under my orders, in soldiers' quarters, not running about the bailey like marauders.† â€Å"Darkness and devils,† cursed Lear. â€Å"It shall not be! Curan, saddle my horses, call my train together. I have another daughter.† â€Å"Go to her, then,† said Goneril. â€Å"You strike my servants and your rabble makes servants of their betters. Be gone, then, but half your train shall remain.† â€Å"Prepare my horses!† said Lear. Curan hurried out of the hall, followed by the other knights, passing the Lord Albany as he entered, the duke looking more than somewhat confused. â€Å"Why does the king's captain exit with such urgency?† asked the duke. â€Å"Do you know of this harpy's intent to strip me of my train?† asked Lear. â€Å"This is the first I've heard of it,† said Albany. â€Å"Pray, be patient, sire. My lady?† Albany looked to Goneril. â€Å"We do not strip him of his knights. I have offered to maintain them here, with our own force, while Father goes on to my sister's castle. We shall treat his men as our own, with discipline, as soldiers, not as guests and revelers. They are out of the old man's control.† Albany turned back to Lear and shrugged. â€Å"She lies!† said Lear, now wagging a finger under Goneril's nose. â€Å"Thou detested viper. Thou ungrateful fiend. Thou hideous – uh – â€Å" â€Å"Slag!†[32] I offered. â€Å"Thou piteous prick-pull. Thou vainglorious virago. Thou skunk-breathed licker of dog scrotums. Do jump in, Albany, I can't go on forever, no matter how inspired. Surely you've years of suppressed resentment to vent. Thou leprous spunk-catch. Thou worm-eaten – â€Å" â€Å"Shut up, fool,† said Lear. â€Å"Sorry, sirrah, I thought you were losing your momentum.† â€Å"How could I have given preference to this villainess over my sweet Cordelia?† asked Lear. â€Å"Doubtless that question was lost worse in the wood than I, seeing as it has only caught up with you now, sire. Shall we take cover against the impact of the revelation that you've awarded your kingdom to the best liars of your loins?† Who would have thought it, but I'd felt more charity toward the old man before he realized his folly. Now – He turned his eyes skyward and began to invoke the gods: â€Å"Hear me, nature, dear goddess hear. Convey sterility onto this creature, Dry up her womb And never let a babe spring from Her body to honor her. Instead create in her a child of spleen and bile. Let it torment her, and stamp wrinkles in her youthful brow Let it turn all of her mother's benefits To laughter and contempt, that she may feel How sharper than a serpent's tooth It is to have a thankless child!† With that the old man spat at Goneril's feet and stormed out of the hall. â€Å"I think he took that as well as could reasonably be expected,† said I. I was ignored, despite my positive tone and sunny smile. â€Å"Oswald!† called Goneril. The smarmy steward slithered forth. â€Å"Quickly, take the letter to my sister and Cornwall. Take two of the fastest horses and alternate them. Do not rest until it is in her hand. And then take you to Gloucester and deliver that other message as well.† â€Å"You have given me no other message, lady,† said the worm. â€Å"Yes, right, come with me. We shall draft a letter.† She led Oswald out of the great hall leaving the Duke of Albany looking to me for some sort of explanation. I shrugged. â€Å"She can be a whirlwind of tits and terror when she puts her mind to a purpose, can't she, sir?† Albany didn't seem to notice my comment, somewhat forlorn, he looked. His beard seemed to be greying with worry as he stood there. â€Å"I don't approve of her treatment of the king. The old man has earned more respect. And what of these messages, to Cornwall and Gloucester?† I started to speak, thinking it a perfect opportunity to mention her newfound affection for Edmund of Gloucester, my recent session of bawdy discipline with the duchess, and a half-dozen metaphors for illicit shagging that had come to mind while the duke mused, when Jones said: â€Å"Sex and cuckoldry You've mastered those jokes For a more challenging jape A new seal should be broke.† â€Å"What?† said I. Whenever Jones has spoken before it has been in my own voice – smaller and muted sometimes, from the art of throwing it, but my voice alone, unless Drool is mimicking the puppet. And it is I who works the little ring and string that move Jones's mouth. But this was not my voice, and I had not moved the puppet. It was the voice of the girl ghost from the White Tower. â€Å"Don't be tedious, Pocket,† said Albany. â€Å"I've no patience for puppets and rhymes.† Jones said: â€Å"A thousand rough nights To call the lady a whore, Only today may a fool, Jest the land into war?† And like a shooting star cutting brilliant across the ignorant night of my mind, I saw the ghost's meaning. I said: â€Å"I know not what the lady sends to Cornwall, good Albany, but while I was this last month in Gloucester, I heard soldiers talk of Cornwall and Regan gathering forces by the sea.† â€Å"Gathering an army? Whatever for? With gentle Cordelia and Jeff now on the throne in France, it would be folly to cross the channel. We've a safe ally there.† â€Å"Oh, they aren't gathering forces against France, they are gathering forces against you, my lord. Regan would be queen of all of Britain. Or so I heard said.† â€Å"You heard this from soldiers? Under whose flag, these soldiers?† â€Å"Mercenaries, lord. No flag but fortune for them, and the word was there is coin aplenty for a free lance fighter in Cornwall. I have to be off. The king will need someone to whip for your lady's rude announcements.† â€Å"That doesn't seem fair,† said Albany. He had a spark of decency in him, really, and somehow Goneril had not yet been able to smother it. Plus, he seemed to have forgotten about accidentally hanging me. â€Å"Don't worry for me, good duke. You have worries of your own. Someone must take a hit for your lady, let it be this humble fool. Pray, tell her I said that someone must always hit it. Fare thee well, duke.† And merrily I was off, bottom stinging, to let slip the dogs of war. Hi ho! Lear sat on his horse outside Castle Albany, howling at the sky like a complete lunatic. â€Å"May Nature's nymphs bring great lobster-sized vermin to infest the rotted nest of her woman bits, and may serpents fix their fangs in her nipples and wave there until her poisoned dugs[33] go black and drop to the ground like overripe figs!† I looked at Kent. â€Å"Built up a spot of steam, hasn't he?† said I. â€Å"May Thor hammer at her bowels and produce flaming flatulence that wilts the forest and launches her off the battlements into a reeking dung heap!† â€Å"Not really adhering to any particular pantheon, is he?† said Kent. â€Å"Oh, Poseidon, send your one-eyed son to stare into her bituminous heart and ignite it with flames of most hideous suffering.† â€Å"You know,† said I, â€Å"the king seems to be leaning rather heavily on curses, for someone with his unsavory history with witches.† â€Å"Aye,† said Kent. â€Å"Seems to have steered his wrath toward the eldest daughter, if I'm not mistaken.† â€Å"Oh, you don't say?† said I. â€Å"Sure, sure, that could be it, I suppose.† We heard horses galloping and I pulled Kent back from the drawbridge as two riders, leading a train of six horses, thundered across. â€Å"Oswald,† said Kent. â€Å"With extra horses,† said I. â€Å"He's gone to Cornwall.† Lear broke with his cursing and watched the riders take out across the moor. â€Å"What business has that rascal in Cornwall?† â€Å"He carries a message, nuncle,† said I. â€Å"I heard Goneril order him to report her mind to her sister, and for Regan and her lord to go to Gloucester and not to be in Cornwall when you arrive.† â€Å"Goneril, thou foul monstress!† said the king, clouting himself on the forehead. â€Å"Indeed,† said I. â€Å"Oh, evil monstress!† â€Å"To be sure,† said Kent. â€Å"Oh, pernicious monstress, perfect in her perfidy!† Kent and I looked at each other, knowing not what to say. â€Å"I said,† said Lear, â€Å"most pernicious monstress, perfect in her perfidy!† Kent mimed a set of generous bosoms on himself and raised an eyebrow as if to ask, â€Å"Boobs?† I shrugged as if to say, â€Å"Aye, boobs sounds right.† â€Å"Aye, most pernicious perfidy indeed, sire,† said I. â€Å"Aye, most bouncy and jiggling perfidy,†[34] said Kent. Then, as if coming out of a trance, Lear snapped to attention in his saddle. â€Å"You, Caius, have Curan saddle a fast horse for you. You must go to Gloucester, tell my friend the earl that we are coming.† â€Å"Aye, my lord,† said Kent. â€Å"And Caius, see that my apprentice Drool comes to no harm,† said I. Kent nodded and went back across the drawbridge. The old king looked down to me. â€Å"Oh, my pretty Black Fool, where from fatherly duty did I stray that such ingratitude should rise in Goneril like mad fever?† â€Å"I am only a fool, my lord, but making a guess, I'd say the lady may have in her delicate youth required more discipline to shape her character.† â€Å"Speak plain, Pocket, I'll not hold harm against you.† â€Å"You needed to smack the bitch up when she was tender, my lord. Instead, now you hand your daughters the rod and pull down your own breeches.† â€Å"I'll have you flogged, fool.† â€Å"His word is like the dew,† said the puppet Jones, â€Å"good only until put under light of day.† I laughed, simple fool that I am, no thought at all that Lear was becoming as inconstant as a butterfly. â€Å"I need to speak to Curan and find a horse for the journey, sirrah,† said I. â€Å"I'll bring your cloak.† Lear sagged in the saddle now, spent now from his ranting. â€Å"Go, good Pocket. Have my knights prepare.† â€Å"So I shall,† said I. â€Å"So I shall.† I left the old man there alone outside the castle.

History And Culture Of The Negritude Movement - 1658 Words

Negritude refers to a cultural movement that was launched by French-speaking black graduate students back in the 1930s in Paris from Africa and the Caribbean territories of France s colonies. These black intellectuals gathered around issues of black internationalist and race identity initiatives to fight the imperialism by the French government. They found strength in their mutual idea of affirming pride in their shared African heritage and black identity and reclaiming self-respect, self-reliance, and African self-determination. The Negritude movement was a sign of an awakening of race wistfulness for blacks in the African Diaspora and those in Africa. This new race wistfulness stemmed from the rediscovery of an original self (of the†¦show more content†¦This alienation, coupled with the uprising movement of the American black renaissance of the 1920s, gave the African writers an impetus to publicly begin expressing and reflect upon their opinions about issues of cultural a nd racial identity. Through the use of the student newspaper - The Black Student, 1933-35 (L Etudiant Noir), as the kickoff point, the African intellectuals began sharing their opinions regarding the race by exploring the idea that there was a primary commonality across all the black cultures. Even though the paper fell over after a few years, the issues expressed within its pages were firmly established, leading to the birth of the Negritude movement. The term Negritude is believed to have been coined by Cesaire. In partnership with Senghor, Cesaire developed the basic theory behind the term Negritude. 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Legalization Of Marijuan The Time For Change - 1359 Words

Legalization of Marijuana: The Time for Change Marijuana has been an ongoing controversial issue for quite some time now. According to the national institution on drug abuse, â€Å"Marijuana—also called weed, herb, pot, grass, bud, ganja, Mary Jane, and a vast number of other slang terms—is a greenish-gray mixture of the dried, shredded leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa— the hemp plant.† (National Institution on Drug Abuse). Today twenty-three states and the District of Columbia currently have laws legalizing marijuana in some form. Four states including Washington State, Oregon, Alaska and Colorado, have legalized marijuana for not only medical use but recreational use as well. Certain people may view marijuana as a relaxing herb as†¦show more content†¦We need to take a stand to be able to be for as well as opposed to the legalization of marijuana. In 2900 B.C. Chinese Emperor Fu Hsi was the first person to use marijuana in a medical way. This history of cannabis use dates back to the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung during 2727 B.C. It wasn’t until the 16th century that marijuana was introduced to the United States of America. It was until 1545 that marijuana spread to the western hemisphere. Marijuana was brought over by the Spanish to be used for its fiber. Later in the 19th marijuana was used in make cloth and rope. Its seeds were also used for animal feed and its oils were later used for the foundation of paint. Today the common use of cannabis medicinal or recreational. The drug may also be used for spiritual/religious use. It wasn’t until 1937 when the Marijuana Tax act was involved. The Tax act placed a tax on the sale of marijuana. In 1969, the act was overturned in the Leary V. United States. This case was against a gentlemen named Timothy Leary who violated the Marijuana Tax Act. Leary later challenged the act and eventually won his case. Today, marijuana can we used by vaporizing (which is ba sed off of temperature). Other ways of using marijuana include smoking (joints or out of a pipe) as well as edibles (adding marijuana to different types of food such as brownies, cookies, and tea). Fundamentally, marijuana should be legalized because of its use for medication, if is its legalized then that

The Dishonesty of Honest People (Paper Summary) - 1597 Words

Dishonesty of Honest People: A theory of Self-Concept maintenance. Main idea ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · People think of themselves as honest. Yes, in reality dishonesty pays quite generously (give examples) The paper demonstrates that their convenience people become dishonest enough to profit but also behave honestly enough to maintain their self-concept. Why are People Dishonest? ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · Origins of theory date from Adam Smith/Thomas Hobbes using Homo Economicus as a base reference. Aka â€Å"Rational Man† who acts consciously and deliberately to trade off benefits and costs of dishonest acts. Within a dishonest act there is normally a balance of tradeoffs: 1. the amount that is to be gained 2. Likelihood of getting caught 3. Magnitude of†¦show more content†¦- A person may cheat on a test because they don’t want to appear stupid - On these matrix tests, people only care about external rewards and cheat up to a threshold where they don’t get caught - People are influenced by social norms, if a person solves 3 but knows on avg that people declare 6 correctly solved ones, he/she will comply. Comment [MS8]: Cheating in the first matrix did not affect the recycle groups self-concept negatively as the magnitude of their dishonesty was well below the threshold...under the radar.. Comment [MS9]: This is not focused on the actions of others, rather its more about self preservation. Control group 1(belief 4 matrices on avg solved): No possibility to cheat: as expected Control group 2(belief 8 matrices on avg solved): No possibility to cheat: as expected Recycle group 1(belief 4 matrices on avg solved): Possibility to cheat: cheated Recycle group 2(belief 8 matrices on avg solved): Possibility to cheat: cheated When subjects had an ability to cheat, they cheated, however their level of cheating was independent of their information on the average performance of others. This argues against drive towards achievement , threshold due to external costs, or norm compliance as alternative explanations. Comment [MS10]: This could be our angle to work on!!! In my opinion I think that drive towards achievement and norm compliance could very well serve for alternative explanations toShow MoreRelatedThe Dishonesty of Honest People (Paper Summary)1589 Words   |  7 PagesDishonesty of Honest People: A theory of Self-Concept maintenance. Main idea ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · People think of themselves as honest. Yes, in reality dishonesty pays quite generously (give examples) The paper demonstrates that their convenience people become dishonest enough to profit but also behave honestly enough to maintain their self-concept. Why are People Dishonest? ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · ï‚ · Origins of theory date from Adam Smith/Thomas Hobbes using Homo EconomicusRead MoreAcademic Ethics : Academic Integrity1080 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinition, academic integrity stands for the ethical policy or the moral code of the realm of academics. Upholding academic integrity is the responsibility of the students, researchers or academicians. Any person related to academics has to be honest in his or her approach, and that should reflect in the field of research and academic publishing. The person should also be committed to maintain the paramount academic standards in his or her work. 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Sauda Essay Example For Students

Sauda Essay Saudi ArabiaI INTRODUCTION Saudi Arabia, monarchy in southwestern Asia, occupying most of the Arabian Peninsula. Saudi Arabia is a land of vast deserts and little rainfall. Huge deposits of oil and natural gas lie beneath the countrys surface. Saudi Arabia was a relatively poor nation before the discovery and exploitation of oil, but since the 1950s income from oil has made the country wealthy. The religion of Islam developed in the 7th century in what is now Saudi Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Abdul Aziz ibn Saud, and it has been ruled by his descendants ever since. Saudi Arabia is bounded on the north by Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait; on the east by the Persian Gulf and Qatar; on the southeast by the United Arab Emirates and Oman; on the south by Yemen; and on the west by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The countrys border with the United Arab Emirates is not precisely defined. Saudi Arabia has an area of about 2,240,000 sq km (about 864,900 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Riyadh. II LAND AND RESOURCES The Arabian Peninsula is essentially a huge, tilted block of rock, highest in the west and sloping gradually down to the east. Most of this slab of rock is covered with the sand of several large deserts. Saudi Arabias landscape also contains mountain ranges, flat coastal plains, and the rocky remains of hardened lava flows. The countrys climate is hot and dry, and there are no permanent rivers or lakes. A Natural Regions Saudi Arabia can be divided into four natural regions. These are the mountainous western highlands; the rocky central plateau; the more fertile, eastern low-lying coastal plain; and the sandy desert areas of the north, east, and south. A1 Highlands of Al #7720;ij#257;z and As#299;r A string of mountain ranges stretches along the western edge of Saudi Arabia. The northern segment of these highlands, known as Al #7720;ij#257;z (Hejaz), has a general elevation of 600 to 900 m (2,000 to 3,000 ft), with some mountains exceeding 2,000 m (6,500 ft). Rainfall here is infrequent, but streams flowing down the west side of the highlands allow limited agriculture in valleys and on the narrow coastal plain. On the eastern slopes of the highlands, prehistoric lava flows solidified to form vast, barren fields of dark-colored, broken basaltic stone known as harras. South of Al #7720;ij#257;z the highlands continue into the region known as As#299;r. Here, the highlands are rugged and reach considerably higher elevations than in Al #7720;ij#257;z: Much of As#299;r lies between 1,500 and 2,000 m (5,000 and 7,000 ft). The highest point in Saudi Arabia, Jabal Sawd#257; (3,207 m/10,522 ft), is located in this region, near the border wit h Yemen. As;#299;r receives more rainfall than Al ;#7720;ij;#257;z, allowing more widespread farming. A2 Najd An arid, rocky plateau known as Najd occupies the interior of Saudi Arabia. The western half of the plateau is a desolate tableland of broken volcanic rock crossed by wadis (watercourses that flow only after rains). In the eastern half numerous rocky ridges run north to south. Bordered on its north, east, and south by desert areas, Najd itself also contains several deserts, including Naf;#363;d ad Da;#7721;y, a series of sandhills and ridges that divide western Najd from eastern Najd. A3 Al A;#7721;s;#257; In the east, along the Persian Gulf, is the low-lying region of Al A#7721;s#257;, known for its vast petroleum deposits, farms, and gulf ports. Here, natural springs made agriculture and large-scale settlement possible long before the discovery of the regions rich oil reserves. The agricultural oasis of Al Qa#355;#299;f is noted for its large plantations of date palms. The coast consists of salt flats (called sabkhas), marshes, lagoons, and sandy or rocky beaches. Offshore coral reefs, mud islands, and sand bars made navigation difficult before channels to ports were dredged in the 20th century. A4 Deserts Considerably more than half the area of Saudi Arabia is desert. Some desert areas are covered with shifting sand dunes, while others are more stable flat or rippled expanses of sand. Shaped and moved by winds, sand dunes take the form of long ridges or tall hills. Sand, gravel, or bare rock basins lie between the dunes. Few plants grow in these arid deserts, except in scattered oases supported by springs or wells. Three large deserts lie on three sides of the countrys central plateau: An Naf;#363;d to the north, the Rub al Khali to the south, and the narrow Ad Dahn;#257; connecting these two on the east. The Rub al Khali, one of the largest deserts in the world, has an area of about 650,000 sq km (about 250,000 sq mi), nearly as large as the U.S. state of Texas. An Naf#363;d is characterized by parallel sand ridges, most 6 to 15 m (20 to 50 ft) high, but some sand hills rise as high as 30 m (100 ft). In some areas, wind has stripped the bedrock surface clean of loose material. North of An Naf#363;d are the southern fringes of the Syrian Desert. A belt of sand hills and ridges known as Ad Dahn#257; extends in an arc south from An Naf;#363;d, separating Najd and Al A;#7721;s;#257;. Ad Dahn#257;, varying in width from 24 to 80 km (15 to 50 mi), connects the northern desert regions with the Rub al Khali in the south. A similar but discontinuous band of sand ridges lies on the western edge of Najd, also connecting An Naf;#363;d and the Rub al Khali. Rub al Khali means Empty Quarter in Arabic, reflecting the barren and forbidding nature of the southern Arabian desert. It is much larger and drier than the other Saudi deserts, contains no oases, and can only be inhabited temporarily, in the cooler winter months, by camel-herding nomads called Bedoui ns. The Rub al Khali extends over much of southeastern Saudi Arabia and beyond the southern frontier into Yemen and Oman. Like An Naf;#363;d, the Rub al Khali is a sea of sand ridges and hills, some of which are as high as 150 m (500 ft). One of the worlds best-preserved meteor impact sites is located in the middle of the Rub al Khali, at a site called Wabar. B Climate Extreme heat and aridity are characteristic of most of Saudi Arabia. It is one of the few places in the world where summer temperatures above 50C (120F) are common, while in winter frost or snow can occur in the interior and the higher mountains. The average temperature range in January is 8 to 20C (47 to 68F) in Riyadh and 19 to 29C (66 to 83F) in Jiddah. The average range in July is 27 to 43C (81 to 109F) in Riyadh and 27 to 38C (80 to 100F) in Jiddah. Precipitation is usually sparse, although sudden downpours can lead to violent flash floods in wadis. Annual rainfall in Riyadh averages 100 mm (4 in) and falls almos t exclusively between January and May; the average in Jiddah is 54 mm (2.1 in) and occurs between November and January. C Natural Resources Some of the worlds largest oil and natural gas fields lie beneath Saudi Arabia and its offshore waters, representing the countrys most economically important natural resource. In 2003 Saudi Arabias oil reserves were estimated at 1.8 billion barrels. Before the discovery and exploitation of these reserves in the mid-20th century, Saudi Arabia was one of the poorest countries in the world. Its relatively small population subsisted in a harsh environment with little agricultural land and limited water resources. Saudi Arabia lacks permanent lakes and rivers, but considerable reserves of underground water have been discovered across the country. These have been used to increase agricultural production and provide water for the growing population. Desalination plants on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea coasts provide important, if expensive, sources of w ater. In addition, a number of dams built across wadis capture seasonal rainwater temporarily. D Plants and Animals Various fruit trees, notably the date palm, and a wide variety of grains and vegetables thrive in desert oases and in irrigated areas. Outside these areas, only sparse desert shrubs and trees survive. Large animals such as ostriches, oryxes, mountain goats, gazelles, and leopards were once numerous. However, hunters equipped with modern weapons and transportation have wiped out most or all of these prized game animals. Among other local wild mammals are foxes, hyenas, ibexes, panthers, wildcats, hedgehogs, sand rats, jerboas, hares, and wolves. Flamingos and pelicans are common on Saudi shores, and bustards, pigeons, and quails are found across most of the country. Lizards and snakes thrive in the arid desert and tableland, and the coastal waters are home to a wide variety of marine life. In particular, the coral reefs of the Red Sea are home to a dazzling array of brightly colored fish and other marine animals. E Environmental Issues The Persian Gulf oil industry has polluted the gulf for decades through unintentional oil spillagefrom tanker accidents and pipeline leaksand through dumping of oil-processing waste. Spilled oil and dumped waste have ruined bird habitats on the Saudi Arabian coast and killed countless fish and marine mammals. The situation worsened dramatically during the 1991 Persian Gulf War, when the Iraqi assault on Kuwait resulted in the release of 910 million liters (240 million gallons) of oil into the gulf. Kuwaiti oil wells set ablaze in the war also caused severe air pollution in Saudi Arabia. Beyond pollution caused by the oil industry, Saudi Arabias rapidly growing population has outpaced the provision of sewage services, resulting in the contamination of underground water near urban areas. The country has made some efforts to protect native species and preserve habitats. There is an extensive system of protected areas, including a national park and a number of natu re reserves. Some protection has also been extended to sensitive marine habitats off the coasts. Saudi Arabia participates in international environmental agreements pertaining to climate change, hazardous wastes, and ozone layer protection. Regionally, the country has committed itself to the cooperative protection of shared marine environments in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Gulf of Aden. III POPULATION In 2004 Saudi Arabia had an estimated population of 25.1 million and a population density of 11.7 persons per sq km (30.3 persons per sq mi). About 23 percent of the population (amounting to about 5.4 million people) is made up of foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia. The countrys population growth rate is one of the fastest in the world, at 3.27 percent (2004). The rapid rate of population growth and the large percentage of foreign workers and their dependents have significant political, social, and economic implications on Saudi Arabia. Foreign workers play an important role in the country, making up a large portion of the labor force and the consumer base. However, due mainly to a series of economic downturns, the government has pursued a policy of Saudi-ization to reduce its reliance on expatriates in the workforce. For more information, see the Labor section of this article. Riyadh, in the central Najd region, is Saudi Arabias capital and largest city, followe d by Jiddah, in Al #7720;ij#257;z. Also located in Al #7720;ij#257;z are the two holiest cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina. Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca and first gained a large following in Medina in the early 7th century. Once a year, close to 2 million Muslims make a pilgrimage to Mecca, a religious duty known as the hajj. Other major cities include the ports of Ad Damm#257;m and Al Jubayl on the Persian Gulf; Al Huf#363;f, in the oasis of Al Hasa in eastern Saudi Arabia; and A#355; #354;#257;if, close to Mecca. A Ethnic Groups and Languages The Arabian Peninsula is the heartland of the Arab people and the Arabic language. The vast majority of Saudi residents are Arabs, and many claim descent from ancient Bedouin tribes native to the peninsula. However, there is some regional diversity. For centuries, the hajj has attracted Muslims from around the world to western Arabia. Those who settled permanently and intermarried with the local population have given rise to a diverse Muslim population in Al ;#7720;ij;#257;z. Some Saudi communities have African roots, a legacy of the days when slave trading was permitted in the region. The large foreign-born population of the kingdom consists mainly of Arabs from countries such as Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen. In addition, many people from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines live and work in Saudi Arabia. Arabic is the official language of Saudi Arabia and is used by most of the native population. English is an important second language, used in government, commerce, the media, and among the non-Arab expatriate community. B Religion Islam is the countrys official religion. An estimated 89 percent of Saudis are Sunni Muslims (see Sunni Islam), and about 5 percent are Shia Muslims (see Shia Islam). The government employs the Sharia (Islamic law) as a guiding principle of rule. Consequently, Islamic tenets not only govern spirituality and religious practice, but also guide practices of law, business, taxation, and government. The form of Islam supported by the government is socially and theologically conservative. While Saudis and foreigners may behave as they wish behind closed doors, they must observe many strict religious requirements while in public. These include conservative dress for men and women, segregation of the sexes, mandatory daily prayers for Muslim men, and the closing of offices and businesses during the five daily prayer times. A government agency called the Committee to Prevent Vice and Promote Virtue sends out official enforcers called mutawwain to ensure observance of these rules. P unishments for transgressions can be summary and harsh, including public flogging. Saudi Arabias conservative form of Islam is strongly influenced by a puritanical Islamic movement formed in the 18th century. This movement is often referred to by Westerners and other non-Saudis as Wahhabism, after its founder, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (see Wahhabis). However, the movements adherents have never referred to themselves as Wahhabis, and within Saudi Arabia, Wahhabi is often used by non-Saudis or reform-minded Saudis in reproach to refer to conservative Muslims. In modern-day Saudi Arabia, strong adherents of the movement may call themselves muwahhidun (unitarians, from al-muwahhid, Arabic for those who proclaim the unity of God) or ahl al-tawhid (people of unity). Less strident followersa significant portion of the population, including some members of the royal familymay simply say they are part of the harakat al-salafiyya, roughly translated as the movement following the ways of the Prophet. The countrys Shia Muslims are concentrated around the oases of Al Hasa and Al Qa#355;#299;f in eastern Saudi Arabia. Strict muwahhidun do not recognize the Shias as true Muslims. Therefore, historically, Saudi authorities have subjected them to discrimination and oppression, arousing resentment and opposition to the regime among the Shias. Other religions are represented among the expatriate population. However, the government does not allow public practice of non-Islamic religions and prohibits missionary activity. C Education The Saudi government has built an education system that provides free schooling at all levels to a large portion of the population. School is not compulsory, but 68 percent of primary school-age children are enrolled in school (2000-2001), as well as 68 percent of secondary school-age children. A dramatic increase in literacy over the last decades of the 20th century is one indicator of the success of the governments efforts. According to a 1970 estimate, Saudis had one of the lowest literacy rates in the Middle East: 15 percent fo r men and 2 percent for women. In 2004, 85 percent of all men and 72 percent of all women were literate. The government operates most primary and secondary schools, but also permits privately owned schools. The Saudi curriculum heavily emphasizes the study of Islam. Saudi Arabia has several universities and teacher training colleges, and a large number of other higher education institutions. Major universities include King Saud University (1957) and the Islamic University of Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud (1953), in Riyadh; the Islamic University at Medina (1961); King Faisal University (1975), with colleges in both Ad Damm;#257;m and Al Huf;#363;f King Abdul Aziz University (1967), in Jiddah; King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (1963), in Ad Damm;#257;m; and Umm Al-Qura University (1979), in Mecca. The government funds university and graduate education abroad, and many Saudi students attend educational institutions in the United States and United Kingdom. This has helped create an English-speaking technocratic elite, some of whom are advocates of political reform and social liberalization. The government extended public education to girls in 1960, despite opposition from some conservative religious leaders. Female education, now widely popular, is helping to transform the traditional role of women in Saudi society. Nonetheless, the education system is segregated by gender. In the past, women who wished to attend college were largely limited to the study of education or nursing (as these were the principal types of work deemed acceptable for women). However, economic and social pressures have forced universities to broaden the range of educational opportunities for women. D Way of Life As in other Middle Eastern societies, the family is the focal point of identity, loyalty, social status, and economic prospects in Saudi Arabia. Households tend to be large; Saudi women bear 6.1 children on average, according to 2004 statistics. The roles of men and women are sharply divided in many respects, a reflection of conservative Islamic practice and local custom. Men are expected to lead the household and provide for its financial well-being. Women are expected to marry, have children, and raise them according to Islamic principles. Therefore, few Saudi women work outside the home. In 2002 women made up only 18 percent of the labor force, and most of these were expatriate workers. Saudi women are not permitted to drive or to travel abroad without a male relatives approval. Some women and men have expressed opposition to these restrictions, and the government has on occasion expressed a willingness to gradually provide more rights for women. However, opposition from religious authorities, a lack of strong support from the ruling family, and the basic conservatism of broad sectors of the Saudi population have made change very slow. Influenced by the dictates of Islamic custom and the need for protection from a hot, dusty climate, traditional Saudi clothing is designed to cover and conceal the body. Although there are regional variations in the styles, colors, and materials used in traditional clothing, the customary garb of the Najd region has come to predominate throughout Saudi Arabia as a result of government and social pressure. Younger generations of Saudis, favoring blue jeans and baseball caps, are moving away from wearing traditional garb. Women traditionally use veils to cover their hair in public and a mask (called a burka or batula) to cover their faces. At home, women usually wear a caftan (full-length, loose robe with long sleeves), which may be ornamented with embroidery. When going outside the house, women add an outer garmen t called an abaya, which is often made of dark, gauzy material that also can help cover the head. For men, the most common garment is the thob, similar to the caftan in that it reaches the ground and has long sleeves. It is typically made of white cotton, but men may wear thobs of dark wool in the cooler months. Over the thob men may wear an aba or bisht, a coarser robe usually of brown wool. Men also tend to cover their heads, first with a small skullcap, then with a large square kerchief called a ghoutra. The ghoutra is often white but is also found in red or black checked patterns. It is held in place with an igal, two intertwined black cords formed into rings. A typical meal in Saudi Arabia could include mutton, chicken, or fish, with rice, bread, and vegetables. Dates are a local delicacy. Coffee, tea, and fruit juices are the most popular beverages among all segments of the population. Alcoholic beverages are prohibited. Food, especially sweets, takes on special significance d uring the holy month of Ramadan, when devout Muslims fast (go without food or drink) until the sun sets. IV CULTURE Bedouin society and Islam have shaped Saudi cultural expression. As in many parts of the Middle East, Saudis view the nomadic Bedouin as the embodiment of core social and cultural values, including honor, valor, chivalry, and hospitality. In pre-Islamic times called jahiliyya (Arabic for time of ignorance), Bedouin poetry was one of the most developed and influential forms of cultural expression on the Arabian Peninsula. Among these nomadic people, poetry was an oral tradition: Poets recited or sang their works, and listeners memorized the poems and retold them to others. The Bedouin poetical tradition influenced subsequent Arabian literature, and survives to the present day. Islam developed in Arabia in the 7th century and soon came to influence nearly all aspects of Arabian cultural life, including the arts, architecture, the Arabic language, and literature. Today, the kingdoms conservative religious authorities attempt to control cultural expression strictly, forbidding movie theaters, and singing or dancing at religious observances. A Literature Poetry was the first form of Arabic literature to attain a high degree of refinement, and the poetry of pre-Islamic Arabia is still admired and influential. The most notable type of poem was the qasida, an ode that could have a number of often-complex rhyming patterns. These odes dealt with themes such as love, beauty, courage in battle, and praise for noble leaders. The most influential poet of the pre-Islamic period was Imru al-Qays. The Quran, revealed to Muhammad and recorded in Arabic, has had a profound influence on Arabian literature and society. Not only a guide for living life according to Gods will, the Quran is also considered by many to exemplify the perfect use of the Arabic language and provide an ultimate literary model. Antigone: A Tragic Hero EssayVII HISTORY Fossil remains of elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and other large animals found in parts of the Arabian Peninsula indicate that the climate could support much more vegetation between 11 million and 4 million years ago than it can today. The regions arid climate, however, seems to date back at least 5,000 years. Prehistoric flint tools and rock drawings in various parts of the peninsula provide evidence of scattered habitation by Stone Age peoples. A Ancient Arabia Arabia served as a crossroads between the major ancient civilizations that rose and fell nearby: Babylonia, in what is now Iraq; the Nile Valley kingdoms of Ancient Egypt and Kush; and the early states of Yemen. By 4000 bc an advanced trading culture known as Dilmun developed on the Persian Gulf islands of Bahrain and the nearby Arabian coast. Dilmun provided an important stop on trade routes linking Mesopotamia to Oman and the Indus Valley civilizations of South Asia. Dilmu n reached the height of its power in about 2000 bc. It was occupied by the Kassites of Mesopotamia in about 1600 bc, and declined in importance over the next 1,000 years. The next major Arabian power to develop was the Minaean kingdom, which was well established by 1000 bc in As#299;r and southern Al #7720;ij#257;z along the Red Sea coast. Its capital was at Karna, also spelled Qarnah (present-day #350;adah, Yemen). The Minaeans were nomads and herders who came to dominate the Al #7720;ij#257;z trade in incensesubstances that were burned to honor gods in many of the regions pre-Islamic religions. The Minaeans withdrew from their trading post at Ded;#257;n (now Al Ula, in northern Al ;#7720;ij;#257;z) in the 1st century bc; afterward the Nabataeans founded a commercial center nearby at Mad;#257;in #350;#257;li#7721;. The buildings of Mad#257;in ;#350;;#257;li;#7721; are carved from rock in the same manner as those of the Nabataean capital of Petra, in present-day Jordan. In the 6th century ad the Lakhmid dynasty of Hira, centered in southern Iraq, began to replace the Minaeans as the regional power of central Arabia. By the 6th century Mecca was alread y an important city. It was a major stop on the main trade route between Yemen and the civilizations of the Mediterranean, and was also a pilgrimage destination for many Arab peoples who practiced polytheism (worship of multiple gods). B Coming of Islam Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in about 570 to a family belonging to a branch of the Quraysh, the dominant tribe of Mecca. His first attempts to preach the oneness of God met with only partial success, gaining him both followers and opponents in his home city. Muhammad had more success with tribes in nearby Medina, and he moved there in 622. Muhammads emigration, known as the Hegira (hijrah in Arabic) marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. In 630 he returned with his followers and conquered Mecca. After Muhammads death in 632, the Islamic community (ummah) was guided by caliphs (khalifah, Arabic for successor), who succeeded Muhammad in his role as Islams political leader. The first four caliphs ruled from Mecca and Medina, overseeing the rapid expansion of an Islamic empire through conversion and military conquest (see Spread of Islam). By 650 an organized Islamic state ruled a newly unified Arabian Peninsula as well as the entire Fertile Crescent (what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel) and Egypt. The Umayyad dynasty of caliphs moved the seat of the caliphate to Damascus in 661. The political center of the great Islamic empire would remain outside the peninsula from this point onward, pushing Arabia to the fringes of Islamic culture and power until modern times. After 1269 most of Al #7720;ij#257;z was ruled by the Egyptian Mamluks. The Ottoman Empire gained control of Al #7720;ij#257;z when it conquered Egypt in 1517. Neither the Mamluks nor the Ottomans extended their authority into the central Arabian Najd region, which remained the domain of Bedouin tribal chiefs. C Abd al-Wahhab and the Rise of the Saudis In the mid-18th century the Muslim leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab attempted to gain religious influence in Najd. Abd al-Wahhab aggressively propagated an Islamic doctrine that he felt was as pure and true as the one preached originally by Muhammad. His view of Islam emphasized the oneness of God and f orbade practices such as the worship of saints and holy men. In 1744 Abd al-Wahhab found an ally in Muhammad ibn Saud, the leader of the tiny settlement of Ad Dir#299;yah in the central Najd region. Thanks to Abd al-Wahhabs strident religious convictions and Muhammad ibn Sauds political and military prowess, a powerful movement was born. Adherents, who called themselves muwahhidun (referred to as Wahhabis by outsiders), quickly spread far and wide. Villagers and nomads joined the movement out of either conviction or fearthe muwahhidun spread their message using soldiers as well as preachers. In the first years of the 19th century, muwahhidun forces conquered the main cities and towns of Al #7720;ij#257;z, including Mecca and Medina. In these cities, Abd al-Wahhabs representatives attempted to destroy the tombs of Muhammad and the caliphs, believing such edifices encouraged idolatrous worship. The forces then advanced northward, plundering the Shia holy city of Karbal;#257; and disru pting the major Ottoman trade routes in what is now Iraq and Syria. Faced with this growing threat, the Ottomans sent a force from Egypt to invade Arabia. Warfare raged across the peninsula from 1811 to 1818, when Egyptian forces defeated the muwahhidun and razed Ad Dir#299;yah. After the Egyptian armies withdrew in 1824, the remaining forces of the Saudi family regrouped in the town of Riyadh, near Ad Dir#299;yah, and began reclaiming the Najd lands they had lost. Throughout most of the 19th century the Saudis and their followers faced opposition from several quarters: rival emirates ruled by the Rashidis of #7720;#257;il, to the north; the sharifs (descendants of the Prophet), who ruled parts of Al ;#7720;ij;#257;z; and an Ottoman presence in Al Hasa, in the east. The Rashidis grew more powerful than the Saudis over the course of the second half of the 19th century. In 1891 the Rashidis seized Riyadh, took control of Najd, and drove the Saudi family into exile in Kuwait. At the dawn of the 20th century, young Abdul Aziz ibn Saud began a campaign of reconquest, starting in 1902 with the recapture of Riyadh. From there, his forces captured the region of Al A;#7721;s;#257; in 1913, the Jebel Shammar in 1921, Mecca in 1924, Medina in 1925, and As#299;r in 1926. The core of Ibn Sauds military forces was made up of townsmen from Najd as well as a zealous force called the Ikhwan (brotherhood). The Ikhwan, former Bedouins who had taken up Abd al-Wahhabs cause, had a keen thirst for plunder and fought with a blazing ferocity. Ibn Saud proclaimed himself king of Al #7720;ij#257;z in 1926, and in 1932, after unifying the conquered territories, he renamed his vast realm Saudi Arabia. D Ibn Sauds Reign Saudi Arabia faced daunting challenges in the first years of Ibn Sauds reign: chronic lack of finances, political fragmentation, a tenuous security situation, little administrative capability, and a primitive economic base. Ibn Saud solidified his control by taking away the power and autonomy of Bedouin tribes, promoting members of his immediate family to positions of power, and marrying women from several different political constituencies to bring them into his family. Oil was discovered in eastern Saudi Arabia in 1938, but World War II disrupted trade and limited revenues from oil through the 1940s. Nevertheless, the gradual increase in funds from the 1950s onward permitted the initial development of the countrys infrastructure and basic social services (as well as lavish expenditures on palaces and other luxuries for the royal family). In foreign affairs, Ibn Saud strengthened relations with other states of the Middle East and adopted a friendly policy toward th e United States and the United Kingdom. A supporter of the Allied cause in World War II (1939-1945), he permitted construction of a U.S. air base in Dhahran but remained officially neutral until March 1945, when he declared war on Germany and Japan. In 1945 Saudi Arabia joined the United Nations (UN) and the newly founded Arab League, an association with the goal of promoting the interests of Arabic-speaking nations. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of Israel but took only a minor part in the leagues war against the Jewish state in 1948 and 1949. In December 1950 a new agreement with the Arabian-American Oil Company (Aramco) provided that 50 percent of the companys net earnings should be paid to Saudi Arabia. Under this new agreement, Saudi oil revenues increased dramatically, and wealth poured into the kingdoms coffers. In June 1951 Saudi Arabia agreed to allow the United States to continue using the Dhahran air base in return for U.S. technical aid and permission to purchase arms under the Mutual Defense Assistance Act. E Turmoil at Home and Abroad The death of Ibn Saud in 1953 ushered in a period of serious internal political strife. Saud, the designated crown prince, took the throne, but his authority was challenged by Faisal and Talal, two of Ibn Sauds other sons. During his reign, Saud was criticized for fiscal irresponsibility and for episodes of labor unrest in the oil industry. Meanwhile, Faisal was largely responsible for the development of the governments bureaucracy. Also during Sauds reign, the first generation of Saudi technocrats who had been educated in the West returned to Saudi Arabia. They played an important part in the countrys subsequent development. In foreign affairs, Saud advocated Arab neutrality in the Cold War (ideological and geopolitical struggle between Western and Communist nations) and opposed the Middle Eastern Treaty Organization (METO), formed in 1955 by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom. Representatives from Saudi Arabia attended the Bandung Conference held by nonaligned nationsthose nations not allied with major world powersin April 1955, in Bandung, Indonesia. In October 1955 Saudi Arabia signed a mutual defense pact with Egypt. A joint Israeli, British, and French attack on Egypt followed Egypts nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956 (see Suez Crisis). Saudi Arabia then severed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom and France, and cut off oil supplies to their tankers. King Saud visited the United States in 1957. Shortly afterward it was announced that the United States would sell arms and supply other aid to Saudi Arabia in exchange for permission to use the Dhahran air base for another five years. Financial mismanagement brought on a crisis in 1958 in which Saud was forced to transfer legislative and executive powers, formerly included among his own absolute powers, to his brother Crown Prince Faisal, the prime minister. Saud reserved for himself the right of veto. A royal decree in 1958 established a cabinet system. Although Saud reclaimed control of the government in 1960, a family council supported by the ulama declared Faisal king in 1964. The Saudi government declined to renew the Dhahran lease in 1962, and U.S. requests for reestablishing military presence there were repeatedly turned aside until 1990. At a conference held in September 1960 in Baghd;#257;d, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Venezuela, and Kuwait founded the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to coordinate their policies and help sustain oil prices. A steady increase in oil revenues during Faisals reign permitted him to fund long-delayed projects of economic and social development. These were implemented through five-year plans, the first of which covered the period from 1970 to 1975. During this time, the government poured money into the improvement of transportation, utilities, education, and health care. Saudi relations with Egypt deteriorated during the 1960s. In 1962 a revolution in Yemen overthrew Yemens imam. Saudi Arabia supported Yemens deposed leader in his efforts to regain his throne, while Egypt gave military support to Yemens new republican government. F Arab-Israeli Conflicts In 1967, as the Arab-Israeli conflict intensified prior to the Six-Day War, King Faisal expressed full support for Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser and dispatched 20,000 troops to Jordan to face Israeli forces. In June all Saudi oil exports to Britain and the United States were suspended, but diplomatic ties were not broken; oil trade was resumed after the Arab defeat. An Arab summit conference later in the year resulted in Egyptian withdrawal from Yemen, and the Saudis extended large-scale aid to Egypt to compensate for the loss of revenue caused by the closing of the Suez Canal during the war. King Faisal continued to call for pan-Islamic action against Israel and, under internal pressures, cr iticized alleged United States involvement on Israels side. He remained unwilling, however, to articulate a militant anti-Western position, and in 1971 Saudi Arabia and five other Persian Gulf states concluded a five-year pact with 23 Western oil companies, including 17 U.S. firms. In July 1970 Saudi Arabia formally recognized the republican government of Yemen after seven years of intermittent border fighting. Saudi Arabia sent a small number of troops and weapons (notably aircraft) to aid the Arab states in the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. In the aftermath of this conflict, the government played a leading role in organizing a short-term oil embargo against countries that had supported Israel and in quadrupling the international price of petroleum. The latter development, along with Saudi Arabias 1974 takeover of controlling interest in the huge oil company Aramco, greatly increased government revenue, thus providing funds for another massive economic development plan. G Financial Strength and Military Preparedness In March 1975 King Faisal was assassinated by a nephew and was succeeded by his half brother Prince Khalid ibn Abdul Aziz. Khalid, however, was in poor health and his half brother, Crown Prince Fahd, became the power behind the throne. The country remained conservative, and its influence kept OPEC from raising its prices to the extent most member countries wanted. In 1980 it was announced that the Saudi government had taken full control of Aramcos assets retroactively from January 1976. Much of the petroleum money that poured into the country was reinvested in the West or spent on arms, but domestic inflation and a barely manageable pace of development presented ongoing problems. Saudi Arabia took a dim view of the conciliatory overtures by Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat to Israel in 1977, and after the signing of a peace treaty between the two countries in 1979, Saudi Arabia cut off financial aid to Egypt and severed diplomatic relations. The Islamic revolution in Iran that year and the subsequent seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca by some 250 armed Islamists jolted the Saudi government, heightening awareness of its vulnerability to external and internal threats. The kingdom joined five other Arab Gulf states in 1981 to establish the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which focused on economic and collective security measures. Shared concerns about regional stability helped warm relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States. In 1981 the United States agreed to sell several Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) planes to the Saudis, an arrangement that provoked heavy opposition from Israel, which feared an upset of the military balance in the M iddle East. King Khalid died in June 1982 and was succeeded by Fahd. As king, Fahd sought to maintain Saudi Arabias traditional Islamic values, while continuing the process of rapid modernization made possible by the nations abundant oil resources. In 1986 he assumed the religious title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques in an effort to safeguard the Western-friendly Saudi regime from opposition by Islamic militants. Nevertheless, King Fahd faced difficulties within and beyond his country. In July 1987 at least 400 people were killed in Mecca when Iranian Shia pilgrims clashed with Saudi police. Relations between Iran and Saudi Arabia became increasingly hostile. Iran expressed its displeasure at Saudi restrictions on Iranian pilgrims by boycotting the hajj for several years. Relations between the countries began to thaw gradually in the 1990s. H Persian Gulf War and Developments in the 1990s Iraqs takeover of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political, and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Despite opposition from some religious leaders and their followers, the Saudi government provided for temporary deployment on its own territory of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied troops. It also contributed forces to the multinational coalition that fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War in early 1991. In order to allay some of the domestic opposition to non-Muslim forces stationed in Islams holy land, the Saudi government emphasized that several other Islamic countries had also sent forces to fight Iraq. Through the late 1990s Saudi Arabia allowed some U.S. forces to remain in the country, mainly to enforce so-called no-fly zones over southern Iraq. Religious opposition groups viewed the continued U.S. presence as a major point of contention with the government. After the Persian Gulf War, Saudi Arabia increased its oil output to compensate for the loss of petroleum supplies from Iraq and Kuwait. Economic problems became evident, however, in 1993. The United States had insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for the costs of U.S. military protection during the war, costing the country $51 billion. Meanwhile, the Saudi economy was feeling the effects of a budget operating under deficit since 1983. War payments and declining oil prices forced the Saudi government to cut social and defense spending and take out loans from international banks. Despite these problems, in 1994 Saudi Arabia helped defeat a campaign by Iran and other OPEC member countries to lower OPECs overall production ceiling so that limited supply would prompt a rise in prices. As oil prices continued to fall in the late 1990s, Saudi Arabia reversed its position and led an initiative for OPEC to reduce production in order to raise the price of oil. In March 1999 OPEC, along with four in dependent oil-producing nations, approved a yearlong production cutback. Saudi Arabia committed to the largest cutback, reducing production by 7 percent. Political reforms decreed by King Fahd in 1992 established a consultative council to serve in an advisory capacity, provided for a bill of rights, and changed the rules of succession. The Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shura) was convened for the first time in December 1993. Social reforms were less evident, however. Saudi men and women still were not permitted to attend public events together, and workplaces remained segregated. Government officials in the United States voiced continuing concern about human rights violations in Saudi Arabia, particularly the abuse of prisoners by guards and police. King Fahd remained an active sponsor of Islamic causes worldwide in his second decade as Saudi leader. In 1992 he conducted an extensive campaign to end the bloodshed in the former Yugoslav republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The same year, Fahds government established diplomatic links with the Muslim republics formerly included in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. In 1994 Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasir Arafat visited Riyadh to discuss with King Fahd the prospects for peace in the Middle East. The meeting represented a significant rapprochement between the two leaders, whose relations had been strained since the Persian Gulf War. In 1995 the governments of Saudi Arabia and Yemen agreed to negotiate a settlement to a long-standing dispute over their shared border; the agreement followed several months of small-scale fighting in the border region. Five years later, in 2000, the two countries finally announced an agreeme nt settling the border dispute. Meanwhile, in 1998

Personal Disc Styles Essay Example

Personal Disc Styles Essay Write a 3 to no more than 5 page double-spaced paper [be sure to use subheadings to identify each section] in which you use the results of your DISC Survey. The content of your DISC paper should include, but is not limited to, answers to the following questions: I. Describe your personal styles (25 points) Describe your strongest style(s) and your weakest style. Provide examples to illustrate how the strong styles characterize you (or, in the case of your weakest style, do not characterize you).If your profile is balanced, describe either how the four styles equally characterize you or how your styles change depending on circumstances. Note in-text citation where needed. II. Discuss how you developed your styles (25 points) Consider the possible effects of family, school, organizational memberships, and/or culture on the development of your self-reported styles. Discuss the factor that you think was most important in shaping your personal styles. III. Assess the impact of your styles on your effectiveness (25 points)Discuss the impact of your styles in terms of two factorssuch as interpersonal relations, group activities, individual or managerial performance. IV. Identify a target for change and a specific change strategy (25 points) Focus on a single style and a concrete, behavioral strategy for change. V. References List DISC source according to APA format requirements. (This is important for every paper in this course that uses an outside source. ) If there are certain issues that you would prefer not to discuss, simply exclude them from your paper and focus on other styles, events, or factors.